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Chapter 3: ý
Determinants of Stress |
Contents:
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Determinants of Stress
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Some
researchers see that it is actually somewhat difficult to
define stressor because what may be a stressor for
one individual may not be a stressor for another individual.
In operational definition, stressors are situations that
require major adjustments that overtax us. Both negative and
positive situation can be stressful because they can both
require major adjustments (Holmes, 1994, p.39).
However,
stressor is an event that occasions stress in an organism;
for example, loss of a loved one. (Davison & Neale, 1994, p.
G. 25).
As a
conclusion, the definition of stress is very difficult
but it is not impossible.
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3.1
Characteristics of Stressful
Events
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3.1 Characteristics of
Stressful Events
Events
themselves are not inherently stressful. Rather, whether
they are stressful or not, depends on how they are appraised
by individual. There are some characteristics that make
them more likely to be appraised as stressful such as:
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a) |
Negative events
are more likely to produce stress than are
positive events. Negative events show stronger
relationship to both psychological distress and
physical symptoms than do positive ones (Mc
Farland et al., 1980). |
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b) |
Uncontrollable or unpredictable events
are more stressful than controllable or
predictable ones. For example, unpredictable
bursts of noise are experienced as more
stressful than are predictable ones. Under some
circumstances, feelings of control not only mute
the subjective experience of stress but also
influence biochemical reactivity to it (See :
Taylor, 1999, p.177). |
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c) |
Ambiguous events
are often perceived as more stressful than are
clear-cut events. |
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d) |
Overloaded people
are more stressed than are people with fewer
tasks to perform (Cohen & Williamson, 1991).
These last two characteristics will be
illustrated when we talk about the causes of
stress. |
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e) |
People may be more vulnerable to stress
in central life domains than in peripheral ones. |
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f) |
People appear to have characteristics patterns
of physiological response which called
individual response activity, so some people
respond stressfully to events rather than others
(Alloy et al., 1996, p. 210). |
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g) |
Some people appear to have psychological
characteristics
which help to insulate them from the effects of
their life experiences |
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3.2
Indicators of Stress
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3.2 Indicators of Stress
Researchers
have used many different indicators of stress. It can be
summarized in:
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a) |
Self reports of perceived stress,
life changes, emotional distress, irritability,
anxiety and depression. |
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b) |
Behavioral measures,
such as task performance under stress. |
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c) |
Physiological measures of arousal,
such as skin conductivity, heart rate and blood
pressure. |
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d) |
Biochemical markers
especially blood levels and urinary levels
(especially cortisol) and Catecholamines (Baum
et al. 1982). |
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3.3
The Other Side of Stress
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3.3 The Other Side of Stress
Some people
may wonder whether stress is a bless or a curse.
Many can answer that it is curse because they relate
between stress and physical illness, emotional distress
and psychological disorders. We must differentiate between
stressors according to its levels and kinds. Although
negative stressors, dangerous events, cataclysmic events and
even minor stressful events (daily hassles) cause bad
consequences, there are positive events which can cause some
pleasure and satisfaction. Some researchers suggest that
positive events can also be stressful. But we can say that
we are in need of emotional, affective and physiological
arousal to continue awareness and to gain motivation which
is very important for many aspects of life, especially in
our work. (Hellal, 1994, p. 13). Thus, stress is not
automatically bad for individual employees or their
organizational performance. In fact, it is generally
recognized that, at least, low levels of stress can even
enhance job performance. For example, focus on a time when
you have been working under fairly intense pressure and
performing well. How were you feeling? One recent study
found that mild stress, such as getting a new supervisor or
being involuntarily transferred, may result in an increased
search for information in the job. This may lead
employees to new and better ways of doing their job. Also
mild stress may get employees “Juices” flowing and lead to
increased activity, change, and overall better performance
(Cranwell –Ward, 1987, p.84; Luthans, 1992, p. 410). We can
conclude that “stress is not completely a bless and not
totally curse.”
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3.4
Causes of Stress
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3.4 Causes of Stress
Causes of
stress are one issue that have been studied intensively.
There are different ways for the classification of causes.
The causes can be classified according to the degree
(Stressful life events, daily hassles and chronic strains)
or according to the place in which it can occur (at home, at
school, at work… etc), or according to the source
(individual – environment or internal-external). The
problem is that, these classifications are not completely
independent, they are more interdependent. They also, have
integrative and complementary effects. We can use, for
practical purposes, simple classification which includes
most of the causes. We must note that these causes vary
according to type of job, to the individual, to the
situation, but the following are the most common.
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Stressful life
events |
1)
Stressful life
events
which range
from cataclysmic events such as the death of one’s spouse to
more mundane and still problematic events such as moving to
a new home (see for example, Yousef, 2000, a,b,c). |
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Daily hassles
or minor stressful life events |
2)
Daily hassles
or minor stressful life events
such as being stuck in traffic jam, waiting in a line, or
having difficulty making a small decision. In some studies
hassles proved to be better predictor of symptoms than were
major life events (Levy et al., 1997).
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Chronic
strains |
3)
Chronic
strains,
some people continue to show signs of stress in response to
severe chronic strain in their lives. One type of chronic
strain results from severely traumatic or stressful events
whose residual effects may remain with the individual for
year. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an example of
this kind of chronic stress (Baum et al., 1993).
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These three
major categories can be divided into other sub-categories
such as:
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Social and
Economic Stressors
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1)
Social and
Economic Stressors
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Political climate
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National security
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Government regulation
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economic system stability
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Economic and financial problems
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Technological changes
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Cultural and value change
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Community environment
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Class and residential conditions
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Crimes and rape
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Personal and
Family
Life Stressors
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2) Personal and Family
Life Stressors
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Conflict between home and work
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Exposure to natural and human disasters
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Problems with family members
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Problems with family members expectations
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Problems with friends and relations
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Dual
career marriage
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Marital dysfunction
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Sexual problems and dysfunction
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Divorce and separation
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Step
family stressors
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Abuse in childhood
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Responsibility for children
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Son’s problems at school and university
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Individual life style
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Stressors in holidays and travel
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Stressors in feasts and social occasions
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The
attempting to combine multiple roles simultaneously
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Internal
Stressors
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3)
Internal
Stressors
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Self
expectation
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Own
aspirations and goals
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Fear
of loosing job
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Fear
of incompetence
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Fear
of being ill
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Fear
of looking foolish
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Anxiety over external stressors
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A
negative approach to life
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Unpleasant negative responses
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Sense of frustration
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Lack
of self management
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Internal demands and needs
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Individual dispositions and personality traits (type A
personality, lack of personal control, learned helplessness,
lack of self efficacy and psychological hardiness).
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Feelings of uncertainty.
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Suspense and apprehension.
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Physical, mental and spiritual health problems.
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Job and
Occupational Stressors |
4)
Job and Occupational Stressors
Job and
occupational stress has more than one source. It can due to
many reasons such as:
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Organization stressors
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a)
Organization stressors:
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Amount of red tape (bureaucracy)
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Changes in the organization
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High technology
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Service industry
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Organization climate
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Organization policies.
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The
job stressors
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b)
The
job stressors:
The physical conditions of work like: drab
surroundings, dirty conditions, poorly serviced
machinery or equipment, poor light, inadequate
ventilation, too high or too low temperature,
over crowding, lack of privacy, polluted
atmosphere, un acceptable noise levels, and
inadequate stuff facilities :
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Amount of work
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The changing pattern of work
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Work overload
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Work pressures
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Responsibility of people rather than materials
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Responsibility for decision making
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Job insecurity
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Lack of control over work
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Job dissatisfaction
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Disappointments.
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Career stressors
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c)
Career stressors:
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Role conflict and role ambiguity
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Perceived inadequate career development
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Lack of clear goals
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The plateaued manager
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Workaholic boss
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The impact of unemployment
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Under staffing
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Inadequate training
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Poor management
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Incompetent boss
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Comfort factor
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Competition
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Compensation.
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Relationship problems stressors
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d)
Relationship problems stressors:
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Problems with supervisor.
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Problems with subordinates.
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Conflict with colleagues.
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The inability to develop satisfying social
relationship at work.
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Lack of group cohesiveness.
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Lack of social support.
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(For more
details see: Cranwell-ward, 1987; Dore, 1990; Luthans,
1992, Baum et al., 1993; GUPCO, 1999; Taylor, 1999).
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Stress Management(3)
